Y11MPA S2W8-10

In Semester 2 the theme is Influence. This unit investigates how media producers attempt to shape meaning, and how audiences interpret, resist, or negotiate those meanings. This week introduces some of the key theories of media communication and explores how audiences are influenced — or not — by the messages they receive.

Context

Media influence is a central concern for governments, institutions, advertisers and content creators. Understanding the relationship between the media and its audiences allows us to examine how messages are constructed and received. There are many competing theories about the influence of media. Some believe that media can control the way people think and behave, while others argue that audiences are active, interpreting media based on their own social, cultural and personal context.

The purpose of this week is to develop your understanding of how influence works, and to practise using theory and terminology to analyse how audiences make meaning.

Communication Theories

Hypodermic Needle Theory (also known as Magic Bullet Theory)
One of the earliest models of media influence. It suggests that media messages are injected directly into the minds of passive audiences who absorb and act on them uncritically. It was often used to explain propaganda in the early 20th century.

Example: The Nazi propaganda film Triumph of the Will was intended to shape mass opinion and obedience. The Hypodermic model assumes that the audience would receive the intended message directly, without questioning.

Two-Step Flow Model
Developed in the 1940s–50s, this model proposes that media messages are filtered through "opinion leaders" (such as influencers or commentators) who interpret the content and pass it on to others. It adds a layer of interpretation between the media producer and the general audience.

Stuart Hall’s Reception Theory
Hall argued that audiences are active in making meaning from media. Media messages are encoded by producers, but decoded by audiences in different ways depending on their values, experiences, and social position. He identified three main types of reading:

• Dominant reading: The audience accepts the intended meaning.

• Negotiated reading: The audience partly agrees with the message but modifies it based on their own context.

• Oppositional reading: The audience completely rejects the intended meaning.

Example: In V for Vendetta, V’s speech encouraging revolution may be interpreted as a heroic call to action (dominant reading) or as a dangerous act of terrorism (oppositional reading), depending on the audience’s values.

Terminology

• Media influence – The power of media to affect the way audiences think, feel or behave.

• Representation – The portrayal of people, issues or ideas in media.

• Audience reception – The process by which audiences interpret and respond to media.

• Encoding/decoding – Stuart Hall’s idea that media producers encode meaning, which audiences then decode.

• Dominant reading – The audience accepts the preferred or intended meaning.

• Negotiated reading – The audience partly accepts and partly questions the meaning.

• Oppositional reading – The audience rejects the intended meaning.

• Passive audience – An audience that accepts media messages without question.

• Active audience – An audience that interprets, questions, or resists media messages.
  
  

Viewing Material

• V for Vendetta (2005) – focus on the scene where V delivers his televised speech to the nation. Consider how the message is constructed and how different audiences might interpret it.

• YouTube: Stuart Hall – Reception Theory Explained (approx. 5 mins)
  
  

Extended Essay Practice Questions

Choose one of the following questions to plan and write this week. You should be prepared to answer either in a timed setting. Responses should be 600–800 words and include a clear argument, use of theory, media terminology, and specific examples.

Q1.
“Audiences are not passive recipients of media messages.”
Discuss this statement with reference to at least one communication theory and a media work you have studied.

Q2.
“The same media message can be interpreted in different ways.”
Analyse how audiences may respond differently to a media work, using relevant theory and terminology.

Planning Your Essay

Your extended response should:

• Begin with an introduction that clearly outlines your argument and introduces relevant theory and media work.

• Use body paragraphs to build your case with examples, explanations and theoretical support.

• Use terminology such as dominant reading, negotiated reading, audience reception, media influence and representation.

• Conclude by reinforcing your main argument and showing insight into how audience reception varies across contexts.
  
  

Suggested structure:

1. Introduction

   • Define key terms

   • Introduce your media work and theory

   • Present your argument
     
     

2. Body Paragraph 1

   • Describe the communication theory and how it relates to audience reception

   • Apply it to a specific moment or message in your media work
     
     

3. Body Paragraph 2

   • Explore how different audiences might interpret the message

   • Use Hall’s model (dominant/negotiated/oppositional) to structure the analysis
     
     

4. Body Paragraph 3 (optional)

   • Contrast passive and active audience theories

   • Introduce a second media example, if helpful
     
     

5. Conclusion

   • Reinforce your thesis

   • Highlight the complexity of audience interpretation and the limits of media control

This week explores how media constructs reality through representation, and how bias is embedded through selection, omission, and framing. While audiences may see media as a reflection of reality, all media work is constructed — often shaped by the social, cultural and institutional context in which it is produced. Understanding the relationship between representation and bias is essential to decoding media influence.

Context

Media work never presents the whole story. Producers make deliberate choices about what to include, emphasise and leave out. These decisions shape how audiences perceive people, issues and ideas. The result is a constructed version of reality — a representation — which may carry bias, whether intentional or unconscious.

Bias can take many forms: reinforcing stereotypes, favouring one perspective, or omitting key context. The construction of bias often serves institutional or ideological interests. Media audiences are positioned by these representations but may also question or reject them.

This week focuses on how representation and bias influence audience interpretation and how communication theories help us understand these effects.

Theoretical Frameworks

Agenda Setting Theory
This theory argues that media may not control what people think, but it controls what they think about. By giving more attention to certain topics and ignoring others, the media sets the public agenda.

Framing Theory
Framing refers to the angle or perspective through which a story is told. Media producers emphasise particular values, language, or imagery to guide audience interpretation. The same event can be portrayed very differently depending on the frame.

Example: A protest can be framed as a “riot” (suggesting violence and chaos) or a “demonstration” (suggesting organised activism). Each version leads to a different audience response.

Representation Theory
All media work is a construction. Representations reflect the worldview and values of the producer or institution. Audiences may accept or reject these constructions depending on their own values and experiences.

Example: In The Social Dilemma, social media companies are represented as manipulative and unethical. This perspective is shaped by the selection of interview subjects, music, and editing — all framing the industry in a particular light.

Terminology

• Representation – The portrayal of people, issues, ideas or events in media.

• Bias – A slant or preference in representation that supports a particular view.

• Framing – The angle or perspective from which a media story is told.

• Agenda setting – Media’s power to influence what audiences focus on.

• Stereotype – A simplified and often inaccurate representation of a group.

• Omission – The deliberate or unintentional exclusion of information.

• Construction – The process of creating meaning through selection, emphasis, and organisation of content.

• Positioning – How audiences are guided toward a particular response.
  
  

Viewing Material

• The Social Dilemma (Netflix) – focus on how social media companies are framed.

• Media Watch (ClickView or ABC iView) – select an episode that critiques media bias or editorial decisions.

• YouTube: How News Media Creates Bias – All Sides of the Story Explained (approx. 7 mins) – an accessible breakdown of bias, language, framing and selection.
  
  

Extended Essay Practice Questions

Choose one of the following questions to plan and write this week. Prepare for all three in case one appears in assessment. Responses should be 600–800 words and include examples, terminology and clear use of theory.

Q1.
“Representations in media reflect the values of the institution that produced them.”
Discuss this statement with reference to a media work and relevant communication theory.

Q2.
“Media bias is often invisible — built into the selection and framing of content.”
Analyse how media producers shape meaning through subtle forms of bias.

Q3.
“Audiences must be critical of the way people and issues are represented in media.”
Evaluate this statement by analysing how bias and framing influence audience perception.

Planning Your Essay

Your extended response should:

• Begin with an introduction that defines representation and bias, introduces a theory, and outlines your argument.

• Use body paragraphs to explore how meaning is constructed through media techniques, language, and framing.

• Use terminology such as framing, omission, agenda setting, representation, and positioning.

• Provide specific examples from media viewed in class or independently.

• Include reference to audience response — do they accept, reject or challenge the representation?
  
  

Suggested structure:

1. Introduction

   • Define key terms (representation, bias, framing)

   • Introduce your media work and theory (e.g. Agenda Setting, Framing)

   • Present your argument
     
     

2. Body Paragraph 1

   • Analyse a key representation in your chosen media work

   • Identify how bias is constructed through selection and emphasis
     
     

3. Body Paragraph 2

   • Apply theory to explain how this influences the audience

   • Discuss how language, editing, or imagery contribute to positioning
     
     

4. Body Paragraph 3 (optional)

   • Consider alternative readings or audience reactions

   • Introduce a second media example or broader context
     
     

5. Conclusion

   • Reinforce your thesis

   • Emphasise the importance of media literacy and critical viewing